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Not an open licence: TIMSS & PIRLS publications may be used for non-commercial, educational and research purposes with attribution (\"SOURCE: IEA's Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study – TIMSS 2023\", publisher TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College); reproducing or redistributing the publications themselves needs written permission of IEA. Only aggregate published figures are used here, with attribution. https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/Copyright/index.html","notes":"Average scores (mean_score) with standard errors (dimensions.se) and standard deviation (sd, 2023 only), percentages reaching the 400/475/550/625 international benchmarks (pct_reaching_*, with se where IEA publishes it) and below 400 (pct_below_low = 100 − percent reaching 400). source_report is TIMSS 2023 (trend and results exhibits) or TIMSS 2019 (countries and cycles absent from the 2023 report: Russia, Croatia, Turkey grade 8 and others). diff_vs: this cycle minus the given cycle with IEA significance (higher/lower/none). trend_comparable: the row belongs to the country's comparable series (the latest report trend table containing it). as_published: the value printed in an earlier report when it differs. notes are IEA footnotes: 1/2/3 population coverage, †/‡/≡ school participation below guidelines (≡ not met), ψ reliability reservations (15-25% of students too low to estimate), Ж average not reliably measured (>25%). Benchmarking participants (Moscow, Canadian provinces, UAE emirates, Madrid, ...) are entity_type subnational; so are England, Northern Ireland and the Belgian communities. mode: test mode (eTIMSS/paperTIMSS in 2019, almost fully digital in 2023). Russia: TIMSS 1995-2019, not in 2023; Moscow City a separate participant in 2019. 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